Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 45

Case Study - Essay Example In response to the second question, granulocytosisis a condition that occurs when there are too many granulocytes in the blood. Granulocytes form and mature in the bone marrow and their role is to attack foreign matter causing inflammation or infection. An increase in granulocytes occurs in response to infections, blood cell malignancies, and some autoimmune diseases. One main cause of granulocytosis is bone marrow disorders.A high white blood cell count is usually an indicator of infection or disease. Granulocytosis is one type of high white blood cell count. (April Kahn) I think the most likely cause for the man’s illness and death was a condition called encephalitis. On the morning of June 4, the patient had symptoms of confusion, disorientation, and lack of reflexes. Some of these symptoms indicate not severe encephalitis while others indicate severe and emergency encephalitis. However, it is worth noting that the patient’s neck was supple. In most cases of encephalitis, there is stiffness of the neck and the back in adults and stiffness if the whole body in babies. (Aksamit) Only occasionally does it happen that the neck and the back are supple such as in this case. Encephalitis which is an infection of the brain might have caused infections in the cerebrospinal system. These infections then might have subsequently caused infection of the bone marrow so causing it to produce more granulocytes and hence the earlier diagnosis of Granulocytosis as well as elevated protein levels prior to his death. Another symptom to this case was the increased abnormal activity which was another clear indication. (New York Times) A serology test and brain biopsy could be used to confirm encephalitis.Serology is a blood test to detect the presence of antibodies against a microorganism.Brain Biopsy involves surgical removal of brain tissue for testing for the

Descartes on God Essay Example for Free

Descartes on God Essay Rene Descartes is a famous French philosopher and is considered as the â€Å"Father of Rationalism. † The aim of his philosophy was to arrive in a solid foundation for knowledge. In order to arrive in this, he used a method called the Methodic Doubt wherein he doubted the senses, mathematics, and even the existence of god. It was only until he arrived with a solid entity called â€Å"the cogito† was Descartes able to discover the center of his existence. Upon finding this center, he was able to use this entity as a means into explaining the existence of the things he previously doubted. In regards to proving the existence of god, we need to tackle first why Descartes needed to doubt the existence of god. This was a very important step in his philosophy because the theories in his philosophy would have a sounder foundation if he was going to use them to explain the existence of God. As what was stated above, Descartes used the Methodic Doubt in order to arrive with the cogito and say his phrase â€Å"cogito ergo sum† or I think therefore I am. This cogito exists in a metaphysical plane because Descartes believed that everything that existed in the physical world were not real. The reasons why he had to doubt the physical world include the fact that the senses deceive us. Examples of these are a pencil which gives the illusion of bending after placing it in a glass of water. Others include dreams which a person would consider to be so real until they wake up in bed. And finally, everything in this world is subject to change which he presented after burning a piece of wax and then asking if the residue of the wax is still considered as wax. After doubting the senses, he soon went to doubt the validity of the physical world. In order to do this, he asserted that there is a malevolent demon that would deceive us into believing that what we perceive is real. Now that he was able to discard god as the foundation of true knowledge, we now shifts his focus to the cogito. However, being left with the cogito could lead to solipsism, a view wherein a person believes that only the individual exists, since everything existed except the cogito. So Descartes needed to prove the existence of God in order to validate the existence of the physical world and free his philosophy from the perils of solipsism. Descartes gave some arguments that led to his proofs of the existence of god. His first proof dealt with the nature of ideas. He classified different kinds of ideas such as those that are innate in a person and those that were received through experience. Being rationalists, he considered ideas cause by the experience doubtful since they do arise from the senses, which he discarded as the means for a clear and distinct idea. So, he shifted his focus to innate ideas, or ideas that have been with a person since birth, and placed the idea of god under this classification. Now, Descartes asked from where these innate ideas came. It cannot be from nothingness since something cannot spring out of nothing. In addition, a perfect idea like that of god cannot come from a less perfect being and so he concluded that there was a first cause that placed the idea of a supreme being in my mind. This argument of Descartes can be compared with that of Saint Augustine’s first cause. However, the difference here is that the arguments of Saint Augustine dealt with motion and change within the physical world. Descartes arguments on the other had, tackle solely with ides and from where they came from. In addition to the argument of a first mover, Descartes was able to prove the existence of god through his own mortality. He asked himself how a person could think of an infinite being, such as god, if there is nothing to compare this form of existence with anything. It is from his own finite existence that he is able to create a distinction between the two modes of existence and prove the existence of an infinite and perfect being that is outside him. His next argument was derived from Saint Anselm’s ontological argument. Here, Descartes tries to justify his argument through describing a triangle. Whenever we would think of a triangle, the first thing that would enter our minds are its attributes, i. e. that it has three sides, all its angles have a total of 180 degrees, etc. Just like whenever we would think of the idea of god, we would usually first think of his attributes which are being omniscient, all-knowing, etc. The difference here is hat although we are able to think of a triangle, thinking about one does not necessarily entail it’s existence. On the other hand, to think of god as a perfect and infinite being must entail that he does exists for to say that a perfect being does not exists would mean that we are depriving god of one attribute and thus making him less perfect. So given this argument, Descartes asserts that existence is needed for perfection for there would be a major contradiction within the assertion of a perfect being that is lacking of any attribute. Finally, Descartes finally says that this god cannot be a deceiving god which he assumed in the beginning. This god cannot be a deceiver for this attribute cannot be found in a perfect being such as god because the act of deceiving someone arises from a certain defect. Upon proving the existence of god, Descartes was able to expand this philosophy by proving the existence of a separate world. He was able to do this by stating that the physical world exists since man was given a certain inclination in order to perceive the world. This inclination was given to us by god and we must believe that the world is true for god would not deceive us with this special inclination that he has given. After reading the proofs of Descartes, I would have to say that his arguments are very solid and logical that it would be hard to think otherwise. However, my only problem with Descartes philosophy is that he used the cogito as a scapegoat to all the problems that he encountered. What Descartes would do is that from the cogito he would begin to explain certain things such as god and the physical world. He would then explore these ideas but when he begins to run of way to explain his arguments he would go back to the cogito. AN example here would be when he tried to explain the existence of the physical world. He simply had to rely on the existence of god and that the inclination he gave man to believe that this world is true. This explanation, to me, seems more as a matter of faith in god as a non-deceiving being rather than a rational explanation.

What Is Peace Journalism Media Essay

What Is Peace Journalism Media Essay How could the media contribute to peace building? Most of the peace settlements even with the Oslo peace Accords in the Middle East, the Dayton Accords which ended the Bosnian War took place as far away from the media as possible. It is known to the related partied of the world situations that media is usually seen as a threat. On that perspective this study will measure the importance of Peace Journalism as new concept of journalism and its acceptance to the audience as one of the tools for world peace. Peace is always related with conflict as its nature, so this study will find the attitude of audience to Peace Journalism. Key-Words: Peace Journalism, War Journalism, Conflict resolutions, audiences of media. Introduction: When some journalists and researchers like David Loyn, Philips argued against peace journalism then Jack Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick argued in favour of it. They tried to find the real distinctions, debated over right or wrong points of peace journalism. Academic writers and scholars also commented on the topic. Some thought it was critical, some thought its not critical enough and some thought its better than war journalism as journalism. This study will find the reality and necessity of peace journalism in the contemporary civilised world when the planet earth is facing undeclared world war with different battle fields and the manipulation of media publicity with propaganda. Background: Peace journalism follows a long history of news publication originating in non-sectarian Christian peace movements and societies of the early 19th century, which published periodicals. Sectarian organizations also created publications focused on peace as part of their proselytizing in the 19th century, as did utopian communities of the period. From the 20th century, a prominent example of sectarian journalism focused on peace was  Dorothy Days  Catholic Worker. Besides being an element in the histories of  pacifism  and the  social movement  press, peace journalism is a set of  journalism practices that emerged in the 1970s. Norwegian sociologist, peace researcher and practitioner  Johan Galtung  proposed the idea of peace journalism for journalists to follow to show how a value bias towards violence can be avoided when covering war and conflict.  Christian organisations such as The  World Council of Churches  and The  World Association for Christian Communication  also practice peace journalism. Professor Johan Galtung, a professor on Peace Studies and director of the TRANSCEND network, started using the term, Peace Journalism in the 1970s. Conflict and Peace Forums, a think-tank developed Galtungs original ideas in a series of international conferences from 1997-99, and in publications: The Peace Journalism Option (1998); What Are Journalists For? (1999), and, Using Conflict Analysis in Reporting (2000). Former BBC journalists Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick adopted the Phrase Peace Journalism and they became scholars and educator in peace journalism. What is peace journalism? As Lynch and McGoldrick describe the word peace journalism is misunderstood as advocating peace. They agree that the phrase Peace Journalism would not appeal to all. They also tried to make a definition which was Peace Journalism is when editors and reporters make choices- of what stories to report and about how to report them- that create opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict. (Lynch and McGoldrick, 2005) Today, journalists often write and report from a third-person perspective and it seems like they just report the facts. If journalists compete not to distort any report to publish the facts as they are, while maintaining awareness of the reporting impact, then it may fall in step with the ideals of peace journalism. But journalism is not only reporting. In a feature or article a journalist could express every truth of fact even from a first-person position. Characteristics of Peace Journalism Lynch and McGoldrick versioned that journalists would not do just for the idea and practice but they should know the differences between Peace and War Journalism and how they could avoid from engaging the war journalism as always its character is propaganda. Understanding peace is very important. Without knowledge no journalist could engage with the mission. The first condition to seek peace is conflicting situation. In my understanding, if the situation is peaceful from beginning then no advocacy on peace is needed. Because there is already peace there. They need development journalism rather peace. So within a conflicting situation if the question of peace arises then the journalist does their mission with their understanding first. Then as part of peace journalism they need to measure the conflicting stories and the role of disputed parties. For a greater knowledge, Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick prescribed 17 tips for better peace journalism. They described what to avoid and what to accept. Whos benefit? Some western journalists advocate through their reporting to justify the aggression by the super powers on any sovereign (?) country and nation, destructions on their assets and killing their citizens for the greater interest of world peace (?).Any destruction and mass killing is treated as collateral damage. For their own survival media often overlook the reality. Reporters must continue with embedment (a big joke on neutral journalism) otherwise they could easily end up dead. There is no peace journalism without a conflicting situation or a war or damages against any civilisation. So any conflicting situation is a pre-requisite for peace journalism if any media desires that. And it always depends on the choices by the editor or authority of the media not to the reporter. But peace is made neither by culture alone, nor by politics and economics alone.  Ã‚  It is made by all three, synergistically.  Ã‚  The formula for peace is always equality, equity, and mutual respect.  Ã‚  We have to learn to celebrate not only the peace elements in our own culture but also in others. (Galtung, 2003). Peace is always for the benefit of the people and they are the audience. Peace is act of non-violence with creativity which was described by Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick as followers from the life of three greatest personalities of human race: Mohammed laid down his cloak in the Kaba at Mecca to forestall violence in a quarrel over who had the right to carry a sacred black stone. It meant everyone could lift a corner of the cloak with the stone placed in the middle. Christ intervened to prevent the stoning of an adulteress by saying, let him who is without sin cast the first stone. The Buddha intervened to prevent a war breaking out over water. She reminded the parties that the water was worth very little. Whereas the lives of their warriors were beyond price. Peace to be peace, must give something to every one. If it is for one party/person and against another, it cannot be peace. (Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick, 2000) Objectivity and Discontents Objectivity and peace journalism totally depends on the authority of media. A freelance could cry on social media for peace and pro-fare objectives but people always use to depend on the main media of the world. But the freelance cannot change anything through his crying. David Loyn criticised peace journalism not only as his believe but also attacked it as meaningless, worst and misleading journalism. He wrote reporting wars in the way of encouraging peacemaker rather than warriors are the most dangerous part of peace journalism as it became as a new orthodoxy. How does objectivity work in practice? Anyone who has ever interviewed two observers of the same incident knows that there is no perfect account. Each reporter takes a view from somewhere. When a Russian armoured infantry company arrived in Kosovo out of the blue in 1999, after the NATO bombing campaign but before NATO ground troops, and seized the airport in a sneak raid, a British and a Russian journalist would have covered the same event completely differently. There could be no agreed narrative- but both would use the tool of objectivity to tell the story in their own terms, and in the terms understood by their viewers, listeners or readers. Here this study only could observe the debate between the scholars in favour or against peace journalism. It is also seems quite dangerous to determine the right or wrong of the both sides. Both Lynch and Loyn argued on the theory rather than practicality of the circumstances of journalism of this time. Media has become more visible, readable, and audible than ever in human history. Beside the reality its importance also realised by the powers who are doing everything against peace. In every country where there is a government that has their own interest at heart rather than the peoples. Either the supporter of peace or war loves to use media as their propaganda mechanism. So that they invisibly control over the media authority thus they control the reporting. Direct conflict or war reporting is not possible without an embed or attachment situation which ultimately paralyses the life of a true journalism. Media authority also dont want to take any risk on the life of a journalist where there is a greater chance to assassinate the reporter even in a friendly fire scenario for his truth. These types of practice are already taking place. It is a fact that to continue with a huge establishment no media authority would take any risk to stand against the powers of the world. Only a few but they are also backed by some other powers. There is no neutrality. Peace journalism creates some questions. Why peace and for whom? When does the topic of peace arise? How could we define peace as a peace not as a trick? Critical peace journalism There are some other types of journalism which are also not branded as peace journalism but their actions ultimately goes to the benefit for peace journalism. Noam Chomsky and Robert Fisk are two of them. This study found both of them as critical peace journalists. But they are not recognised as peace journalist at all. This study will evaluate their recent published articles on the assassination of Osama Bin Laden which brought their reactions to the audience and it carries the message of world peace in final. Robert Fisk: So now for a reality check. The world is not safer for Bin Ladens killing. It is safer because of the winds of freedom blowing through the Middle East. If the West treats the people of this region with justice rather than military firepower, then al-Qaida becomes even more irrelevant than it has been since the Arab revolutions. (Independent, 4/05/2011) Noam Chomsky: We might ask ourselves how we would be reacting if Iraqi commandos landed at George W. Bushs compound, assassinated him, and dumped his body in the Atlantic. There is also much media discussion of Washingtons anger that Pakistan didnt turn over bin Laden, though surely elements of the military and security forces were aware of his presence in Abbottabad. Less is said about Pakistani anger that the  U.S.  invaded their territory to carry out a political assassination. Anti-American fervour is already very high in Pakistan, and these events are likely to exacerbate it. The decision to dump the body at sea is already, predictably, provoking both anger and skepticism in much of the Muslim world. (guernicamag.com, 6/05/2011) The two above cases clearly indicated that both the articles warned the related parties about the situations from the perspective of audiences and its target against the conflict in favour of peace. The author of this study finds those as critical peace journalism which was not widely accepted e or circulated as peace journalism rather than criticism. The way the media present conflict and violence will be a major factor in determining the reaction: war, or peace. One assumption is readiness to identify the legitimate goals of the other. Most parties are carriers of mixed bags of goals, so the task is to provide an umbrella for all legitimate goals. Sufficient prominence of such possible outcomes in the media is a basic necessary, if not sufficient, condition. (Galtung, 2006) War Journalism -VS- Peace Journalism The common understanding on war journalism is that its violence oriented where the elits or power based forces use media as their propaganda mechanism. All the related parties want to see their possible victory in the war reporting. Also the national media have the same desire as their audience in a conflicting situation. In the same way Peace Journalism is based on conflict but peace oriented and reports should be truth oriented and reports mostly cover both parties in the conflict for a better solution or outcome avoiding a more disasturus situation. In a phrase, Peace Journalism is a broader, fairer and more accurate way of framing stories, drawing on the insights of conflict analysis and transformation. The Peace Journalism approach provides a new road map for tracing the connections between journalists, their sources, the stories they cover and the consequences of their reporting the ethics of journalistic intervention. It opens up a literacy of non-violence and creativity as applied to the practical job of everyday reporting. (Lynch and McGoldrick, 2001) As Lynch mentioned war journalism is Violence/war Oriented Propaganda-oriented Elite- oriented Victory- Oriented And peace Journalism itself is therefore Peace/conflict oriented Truth- oriented People- oriented Solution oriented Problems for reporting on a conflict situation is that when two nations start fighting each other, both sides automatically become involved in psycological warefare also. In that situation side wants to see their victory. Here is the success of war journalism. To capitalise on that position, super powers allow journalism with attachment just to control the media for propaganda. In a conflicting situation to overcome human disaster there is no alternative but peace reporting for a possible calm situation. But it may not possible all the time. Kathleen OToole of Stanford University news service quoted from James Schear, deputy assistant secretary of defence for peacekeeping and humanitarian affairs that for most of the parties in most of the conflicts, war is a safer bet than peace. James Schear told the campus audience and described it as a brutally depressing fact. Schear previously worked for the United Nations in Cambodia and Bosnia. War is often safer, he said, because it has a familiar pattern; it imposes order, stifles dissent, generates profits in Angola and other places, provides employment, provides a pathway to advance. (OToole, 1997) Role of social media for peace Social media plays a major role in the field of mass communication. That role could recognise as one of the event of journalism also. When journalists fail to publish any report to their respective media they are leaking the topic or report to the public through social media. Any member of the public could have the chance to publish any news in the social media as well. In terms of peace journalism there is a huge opportunity to serve the people targeting a peaceful environment avoiding any conflict or war situation. A Reporter could avail of the advantage of wider publicity of social media to reach the audience and to get a prompt response from the audience. Journalism of Social Media now is a reality. The web has changed everything. Anybody with a blog can be a reporter, with a mobile phone can be a camera man, and even on Facebook, Twitter or a thousand other platforms can be a news editor or at least a  curator. So its easy to see the power that lies in the future of social media. The future of social media in journalism will see the death of social media. That is, all media as we know it today will become social, and feature a social component to one extent or another. After all, much of the web experience, particularly in the way we consume content, is becoming  social and personalized. ( Lavrusik 2010) So its possible that traditional media could be merge with social media meaning the content of Peace Journalism would be different from now. Journalists would be more realistic and even free to serve their ideas for audience without any type of super-power pressure which could distort the news content. But still its difficult to know whether the audience would accept more peace journalism than war. Though it differs the mind of audiences is still more or less captured by violence. They love to play violent videogames, watch violent movies, documentaries even bloody sports they like more than anything. They like to see the victory over others, its a psycological matter but on that reason nobody could be definitive whether audience would accept peace journalism or not. Audience of Peace Journalism War may be pointless for mankind but peace never will be pointless. If peace journalism is a mission then it could not be a pointless topic. It is very hard to see how it could be a popular one and how to get journalists to view the topic as one of the most important requirements for mankind. Theoretically there is no alternative but peace journalism at this stage for the audience, but other researchers, academic and journalists argued on that point that its not possible to find a solution of conflicts worldwide but beyond the conventional duties of journalism. The mass media dont parrot militaristic arguments as bluntly as bloggers, but theres no great taste for peace there, either. I cant name a single major columnist who advocates massive military cuts. Nor a single one who has openly sided with the peace movement. The opinion elites have gradually allowed the concept of immediate withdrawal from Iraq on to the front page, without taking the radical step of turning the U.S. away from being a threatening bully on a global scale. (Chopra, 2005) Who cares? This moment the most circulated news of the planet of earth is the killing of unarmed Osama Bin Laden the famous leader of CIA created terrorist organisation Al-Qaeda. This killing news captures whole media attention. The Noble Lauriat on Peace US President Obamas popularity already increased with his successful killing mission of an unarmed terrorist (their creation). It is now very tough to define the reporting character whether those are reflecting peace journalism or propaganda journalism. Some people accept the killing as an act towards peace and some are totally reversed. For example journalist Robert Fisk is a successful media personality, who is continuously criticising the aggressions and imperialistic activities of superpowers. The view of this author is that Robert Fisks articles are the latest version of journalism and the ultimate target is to reduce conflict if the conflict creators realise the message of his articles. This type of article which was criticising the conflict makers might not be acceptable by the super powers or by some others audiences who like to watch thrill and war. Fisks articles always bring some messages which never in favour of War Lords or War super powers. So it is tough to measure the peace journalism without a definite standard to compare with anything. Conclusions: At this stage of the planet earth where the Homo sapiens are living for a consecutive period might enter in a dangerous band of time cycle. People are used to watch wars and conflicts through news media and movies. New generations love to see thrill and suspense with fighting. Even people are enjoying the latest video game of the assaasination of Osama Bin Laden. Huge people gather around any show on armaments in different countries of the planet. They love to see the heroes till the disaster falls into their own life. This is reality. But it varies with time and circumstances. Though peace journalism faced controversy from the beginning, its existance now also the reality of journalism. Peace Journalism basically exist on research, academic and theory rather than practical. Audience also like to see war journalism but like the idea of Peace Journalism for all mankind. But for Peace Journalism to become a reality it requires a complete shift in the thinking of the media machine, at t he moment there are few voices speaking out in favour of it. Only when that changes can there be any hope for Peace Journalism. For audiences to accept it all of our mainstream media sources must do it. Acknowledgement: This eassy has been read by Mr. Joseph Coffey my classmate and I acknowledged his extended cooperation to correct my mistakes.

Why Religious People May Have Problems with Transplant Surgery :: Papers

Most Christians agree with transplant surgery however some are opposed to transplant surgery. They disagree with using organs from dead people but accept using organs as donated by living relatives. Jews have a similar view to Christians on this matter. Muslims however are totally opposed to it some Muslims do allow transplant surgery using organs from a living donor as long as the donor is a close relative. More Hindus are for transplant surgery than against and mainly will carry donor cards. Christians that are opposed to transplant surgery believe that transplants can ignore the sanctity of life, God created us in his image so transplanting organs means you interfering with what God intended and therefore â€Å"playing God†. Organs cannot be paid for because this is exploiting the poor which is strictly forbidden in the Bible. The majority of Muslims are opposed to transplant surgery because the Muslim belief in the sanctity of life means that all life belongs to God and that God is the only on who has the right to take life. In the Qu’ran the Muslim holly book, it says that God has created the entire body so to take parts or organs from one body and transplant it into another is to act as God. To act as God is the greatest sin in Islam so you can see how the majority of transplant surgery is strictly forbidden. As well as this the Shari’ah another Muslim holly book teaches that after death nothing should be removed from the body. They are also totally opposed to post-mortems. Muslims have very specific death rituals this is why this is extremely important and therefore organs should not be removed from Muslims that have passed away. Due to Muslims being so opposed to transplant surgery they would also agree with any none religious arguments against transplants. The few Jews, which are against transplant surgery, have similar reasons to Muslim beliefs. They also believe that we’ve God has created the entire body so to transplant organs is playing God.

Postmodern and Existential/Psychoanalytical curriculum theory Essay

The terms I had the most difficulty defining from the exercise were Postmodern and Existential/Psychoanalytical curriculum theory. I find that these theories assume a class body which I understand intellectually but have difficulty imagining. In Scenario 6 (AIU, 2006) about postmodernism where the teacher is discussing how technology furthers cultural elitism, this would require a very advanced class of students. It is an approach which would only really impact 11th and 12th graders who have studied history and understand cultural elitism. In addition, even if the students have studied the history, the material requires experience the students have only caught glimpses of. Certainly a discussion a little above the students comfort zone would lead to critical thinking, but it runs the risk of this vulnerable age using the belief that technology will somehow lead to oppression to stop them from seeing how it could lead to equalization of inequality. A postmodern approach would take a special teacher and a special set of students to be effective. The problem I had with the Existential/Psychoanalytical theory of Scenario 7 (AIU, 2006) is that it assumes that you as a teacher really know a student. What a teacher observes of their student may not be accurate, and it takes a dedicated teacher to take the necessary time to understand what direction a student should take their potential. Students have great potential for many diverse things from, for example, being great artists or activists or sports commentators. Teachers must examine their own biases to make sure that they are not encouraging one potential over another due to cultural, sexual or racial biases and perceptions. Similarities and differences among theories. Walker’s deliberative approach to curriculum development is similar to a postmodern approach. In both approaches it is assumed that curriculum is shaped by particular beliefs and values held by curriculum makers. For the deliberative approach these biases are mitigated by the makers open discussion of beliefs and values and attempt to come to neutral ground before designing the curriculum (Scenario 3). In postmodernism, the teacher allows the receivers of the curriculum to provide input on and conceptualize the effects of the curriculum before it is implemented (Scenario 6). The Existential/Psychoanalytical approach, Hilda Taba’s approach, Eisner’s approach and the Autobiographical/Biographical approach to curriculum development all share a central tenant that students are individuals. However, Existential/ Psychoanalytical theory optimistically focuses on nurturing who the student will be in the future (AIU, 2006, Scenario 7) while Taba’s needs assessment tends to focus on present deficiencies (AIU, 2006, Scenario 5). In contrast, the Autobiographical/Biographical theory focuses on how human differences in experience shape the developmental journey from the present to the future (AIU, 2006, Scenario 4). Eisner is more Autobiographical in theory but focuses on providing the right opportunity to learn rather than strict direction (AIU, 2006, Scenario 1).

1906 San Francisco Earthquake

1906 San Francisco Earthquake At 5:12 a.m. on April 18, 1906, an estimated magnitude 7.8 earthquake hit San Francisco, lasting for approximately 45 to 60 seconds. While the earth rolled and the ground split, the wooden and brick buildings of San Francisco toppled. Within half an hour of the San Francisco earthquake, 50 fires had erupted from broken gas pipes, downed power lines, and overturned stoves.   The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and subsequent fires killed an estimated 3,000 people and left over half of the citys population homeless. Around 500 city blocks with 28,000 buildings were destroyed during this devastating natural catastrophe. The Earthquake Strikes San Francisco At 5:12 a.m. on April 18, 1906, a foreshock hit San Francisco. However, it offered just a quick warning, for massive devastation was soon to follow. Approximately 20 to 25 seconds after the foreshock, the large earthquake hit. With the epicenter near San Francisco, the entire city was rocked. Chimneys fell, walls caved in, and gas lines broke. Asphalt that covered the streets buckled and piled up as the ground seemed to move in waves like an ocean. In many places, the ground literally split open. The widest crack was an incredible 28 feet wide. The quake ruptured a total of 290 miles of the Earths surface along the San Andreas Fault, from northwest of San Juan Bautista to the triple junction at Cape Mendocino. Though most of the damage was focused in San Francisco (in large part because of the fires), the quake was felt all the way from Oregon to Los Angeles. Death and Survivors The earthquake was so sudden and the devastation so severe that many people didnt have time to even get out of bed before they were killed by falling debris or collapsed buildings. Others survived the quake but had to scramble out of the wreckage of their buildings, clothed only in pajamas. Others were naked or near naked. Standing out in the glass-strewn streets in their bare feet, survivors looked around them and saw only devastation. Building after building had been toppled. A few buildings were still standing, but had entire walls fall off, making them look somewhat like doll houses. In the hours that followed, survivors began helping neighbors, friends, family, and strangers who remained trapped. They attempted to retrieve personal possessions from the wreckage and scavenge some food and water to eat and drink.   Homeless, thousands upon thousands of survivors began wandering, hoping to find a safe place to eat and sleep. Fires Start Almost immediately after the earthquake, fires broke out across the city from broken gas lines and stoves that had fallen over during the shaking. The fires spread ferociously across San Francisco. Unfortunately, most of the water mains had also broken during the quake and the fire chief was an early victim of falling debris. Without water and without leadership, it seemed nearly impossible to put out the raging fires. The smaller fires eventually combined into larger ones.   South of Market Fire  - Located south of Market Street, the fire was curbed on the east by fireboats that could pump salt water. However, without water in the fire hydrants, the fire quickly spread both north and west.North of Market Fire  - Threatening an important commercial area and Chinatown, firefighters attempted to use dynamite to create firebreaks to stop the fire.  Ham and Eggs Fire  - Started when a survivor tried to make breakfast for her family not realizing that the chimney had been damaged. Sparks then ignited the kitchen, starting a new fire that soon threatened the Mission District and City Hall.Delmonico Fire  - Another cooking fiasco, this time started by soldiers trying to cook dinner in the ruins of the Delmonico Restaurant. The fire quickly grew. With the fires raging out of control, buildings that had survived the earthquake were soon engulfed in flame. Hotels, businesses, mansions, City Hall all were consumed. Survivors had to keep moving, away from their broken homes, away from the fires. Many found refuge in city parks, but often those too had to be evacuated as the fires spread. In just four days, the fires died out, leaving a trail of devastation behind. Aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake The quake and subsequent fire left 225,000 people homeless, destroyed 28,000 buildings, and killed approximately 3,000 people. Scientists are still trying to accurately calculate the magnitude of the quake. Since the scientific instruments used to measure the earthquake werent as reliable as more modern ones, scientists have yet to agree on the size of the magnitude. Most, however, place it between 7.7 and 7.9 on the Richter scale (a few have said as high as 8.3). Scientific study of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake led to the formation of the elastic-rebound theory, which helps explain why earthquakes occur. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake was also the first large, natural disaster whose damage was recorded by photography.

Javier Crespo Essays - Physical Attractiveness, Behavior

Javier Crespo Essays - Physical Attractiveness, Behavior Javier Crespo Professor Cronk 10 December 2016 Final Paper Which Facial Features are Attractive For the experiment I chose to partake in, Julia Carlota Batres and Professor David I. Perrett from the University of St. Andrews put me through several stages of questions, followed by hands-on editing of the human face in an effort to decipher which facial features I, or anyone involved in the study found more attractive. The test took no more than 15 minutes, with relatively easy questions surrounding the main experiment, which I was very anxious to try attempt. At first, I answered a few simple questions regarding my information. Some questions were oddly specific (I was asked if I was in a relationship, sexual preference, my race, etc.), so I wondered if this by any chance changed the way I was questioned. I was then asked to put a number, 1 through 5; 1 meaning not at all and 5 being frequently: how often have I felt a specific emotion in the past couple of weeks. Emotions such as excited, scared, happy, lazy, and fearful were among the emotions listed. As I filled out the qu estionnaire, I couldn't help but wonder why a study based on facial preference was asking me questions based on my feelings; but I continued on. The next part of the test was the fun part. I was asked to perform the task of editing the faces of 20 different women until I thought they were most attractive. As I slid the mouse from left to right, the anonymous woman's face would distort. Scroll to the left and the woman's face cleared up of any skin condition, her neck was much skinnier and any slight eye bags would disappear. Slide it back to the right and the woman would age drastically, with heavy eye bags and more masculine facial structures such as a protruding supraorbital ridge, broader shoulders, and more defined trapezius muscles. I scrolled and clicked through the 20 different transforming images assuming I was done; not quite yet. The final part of the test consisted of 30 words with missing letters (ex. R_D_O), and I was tasked to complete the first word that came to mind that successfully filled in the blanks. Again, I was rather confused by the questions at hand. Upon searching up the names of Batres and Prof. Perrett, I came across an article published by Perrett describing the findings of this experiment. The article, published by the journal Ethology, is a comprehensive article describing patterns and discrepancies based on the results of those who voluntarily took the test online and studies on students at an army training camp. It very quickly started to make sense why I was asked personal questions regarding my information and recent emotions. It wasn't very difficult to understand that the personal questions were intended to compare and contrast people with similar answers. For example, I was instantly paired with heterosexual males, and I was then grouped with people who were feeling similar emotions as I was to find connections between emotion, environment, and the influence one's surroundings has on facial preference. This study was ultimately trying to prove that personal preference varies based on surroundings. This theory, h owever, is a major debate with many different theories on what truly influences facial preferences. Does evolutionary preference lose influence with societal standards? Are societal standards too vague of a subject to have such direct influence on facial preference? Through their study, Batres and Perrett have theorized that this question has more to do with immediate environmental and emotional conditions. The results proved that although environmental and emotional conditions do in fact influence facial preference, it was also evident the evolutionary preferences were prominent in selecting facial preferences under stress. This ended up narrowing down societal influence to a much more exact reason. At the culmination of the study, Professor Perrett and Batres came to the conclusion that the students at the training camp preferred more feminine faces for males, hinting that even before the training, students were inclined to pick more trustworthy features (feminine features) for men. An even more precise result was that males in harsher environments showed tendencies of choosing faces that appeared to

Free Essays on WWI

The Great War World War I was the boiling point of years of rumblings under the surface between the great powers of Europe. In the end, it cost $332 billion, ten million lives, and twenty million wounded, with an entire generation in Europe and Russia wiped out (Paxson 5). Those figures do not even take into account those who were mentally scarred for life. Out of the war came a Europe that was based on the principles of self-determination and national unity. The largest and most prominent consequence was the revolution in Russia, yet there were also major developments in the Balkans in southern Europe with Austria-Hungary and drastic changes in international relations. Russia had been primed for a revolution since the days even before the Great War. After the not so successful revolution of 1905, the tsar still kept power over the bureaucracy and the army; he also had the power of veto over the legislative body, the Duma. Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled the Russian Empire as an absolute monarch. However, following the loss of the war with Japan in 1905, serious disturbances took place in St. Petersburg and Nicholas was persuaded to accept a reduction in his power. In March, 1905, he announced plans to form a Russian Parliament called the State Duma. As this was only a consultative body, many Russians felt that this reform did not go far enough and over the next few years the country remained unstable (www.worldwari.com). The War merely acted as a catalyst and a means for the Soviets, under Lenin, to take control. Always considered a Great Power based on their outwardly appearance of size and numbers, Russia was actually a fragile, backwards nation ma king revolution inevitable. World War I exposed the weakness of the peasant-dependant nation of Russia. Russia had been considered a world power ever since the days of Napoleon, with huge numbers of citizens and immense amounts of land. â€Å"Inside, Russia remained the weak, depe... Free Essays on WWI Free Essays on WWI The protracted, horrific carnage executed during the First World War forever changed the course of events and mentality of the twentieth century. The war was expected to last for weeks or for months, like all previous wars had lasted; however this war had devolved into a prolonged stalemate where millions upon millions of lives were lost. Why this war took place is not an easy an easy question. Many believe that the war had started because of the murder of Prince Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Duchess Sophie von Chotkova. Many are under the false assumption that this alone was what the primary reason as to why the war had broken out. It is safe to believe that this event was in fact something that fed fuel to a fire that was burning due to other more serious issues as it sort of worked as a catalyst in the beginning. In order to better understand WWI and the reasons behind it taking place, an accurate account of the circumstances leading to war requires a concise analy sis of several key areas some going as far back as the 1800’s. Four of the major reasons that pressed the great powers to this explosive war were nationalism, militarism, imperialism and formation and systems of alliances. Nationalism, as defined in the Encarta online dictionary means, â€Å"the desire to achieve political independence, especially by a country under foreign control or by a people with a separate identity and culture but no state of their own.† The love and support of one's country, is something that has existed throughout time. However, in this time period, it played a major role in the outbreak of one of the most famous and deadliest wars in history. The nationalistic pride that existed with various nations, made the possibilities of peace between rival powers all the less probable. In ninetieth and twentieth centuries, especially after the French Revolution nationalism was becoming a powerful force in Europe. The belief tha... Free Essays on WWI During World War One, the role of airplanes and how they were used changed greatly. At first planes were only used for sport, but people started realize that not only could airplanes be useful but they could even influence an outcome of the war greatly. Soon the war was filled with blimps, planes, and tethered balloons. By the end of the war, planes became a symbol of fear, but they were not always treated with such respect. In the time leading up to the war, the general feeling about planes was, they were a sneaky, unfair tactic that should not be used in warfare. During The 1899 Hague Peace Conference it was put on record that the dropping or shooting of any projectiles or explosives from the air during a time of war was forbidden and was considered a crime of war. It was also decided that airplanes could only be used for reconnaissance or spying missions. Even by the beginning of the war in 1912, the use of planes in war was still prohibited by the War Office. Shortly thereafter this changed, people awakened to the possibilities of air warfare. The world soon started to realize the effectiveness of planes in war and how the control of the skies could influence the outcome. Although the French were the first to have a working, conscripting air force and to license fliers, their trust in airplanes still was not up to par. Their lack of trust was justified, for the planes had no armaments, too many wires, and no reliable motor. Soon all countries in the war effort had their own little air force, built hangers, and started to train pilots. The first bombing occurred in November 1911. Although the first bomb was dropped by the Italians, soon all countries were involved in bombing raids. It was followed by the first aerial dogfight in 1912. This consisted of a primitive exchange of pistol fire between British and German planes. The United States ultimately was slower than France and Germany to develop an air force. O... Free Essays on WWI The Historian John Lukacs has written that WWI and WWII are two halves of the same coin. Discuss. The war that began in 1914 as a war to end all wars actually ended in 1945. World War Two was the child of World War One. The word treaty is defined in Webster’s dictionary as â€Å"negotiation; agreement between two or more nations†. At Versailles in 1919 there were no negotiations other than between the â€Å"victors†. The German delegation was told of the terms of the agreement only a few weeks prior to the signing of the document. They were given the choice of either sign the document or prepare to be invaded by Allied forces. The â€Å"Surrender† of Versailles was signed June 28, 1919 in the same railroad car where the Germans had celebrated the victory over the French in the Franco-Prussian War. The terms of the document signed at Versailles left Germany degraded, weak and embarrassed. They were unable to defend themselves as their once powerful army was all but destroyed. Much of their territory was annexed by neighboring states eager to take revenge for long past quarrels. And the huge burden of the War Guilt Class, which blamed Germany for the epidemic of war, made it a certainty that the German economy would eventually collapse. The new German government now had to take full responsibility for paying for the damages to the triumphant Allied countries. To complete the humiliation of Germany when the League of Nations was founded Germany was not allowed to become a member. This action effectively cut off Germany from the rest of Europe. The German people felt as if they were being treated quite unjustly for the decisions of the Kaiser’s government in 1914. The terms of the Versailles document that France, Britain and the United States felt so reasonable, left the average German feeling very angry. Lloyd George of Britain, Clemenceau of France and Wilson of the United States each had very different ideas on how to... Free Essays on WWI Wilson declares U.S. neutrality August 4, 1914 Washington, D.C. Reflecting strong public opinion, he states that U.S. will not join the war. However the U.S. change from neutrality to war in 1917, which some believe had many hidden reasons that violated the traditional values of the nation. Those values include freedom, public safety, life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. One idea that proves that statement wrong is how long the U.S. took to go into the war. Figuring the war began in 1914 and the U.S. went to war in April of 1917, that shows that America took time thinking about going to war. America had patience before changing the stand in neutrality. Submarines threatened American merchant ships in addition Germany offered Mexico a deal. The offered deal was if Mexico joined Germany, Germany would help Mexico get New Mexico, Texas and Arizona, which is land that Mexico once had. Although America changed from neutrality to war, the reasons did have a strong ground and instead of violating the values they were protecting them. Another idea is the face that war is not a peaceful time, but in fighting WWI the U.S. got to keep the traditional American values, one of those values being freedom, and not have to worry about dictatorship. If Germany won the war, they would continue to conquer more land and may eventually have conquered the U.S. . â€Å"Our subject†¦is to vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the life of the world†¦Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the peace of the world is involved and the freedom of its peoples†¦ The world must be made safe for democracy.†... Free Essays on WwI The Great War World War I was the boiling point of years of rumblings under the surface between the great powers of Europe. In the end, it cost $332 billion, ten million lives, and twenty million wounded, with an entire generation in Europe and Russia wiped out (Paxson 5). Those figures do not even take into account those who were mentally scarred for life. Out of the war came a Europe that was based on the principles of self-determination and national unity. The largest and most prominent consequence was the revolution in Russia, yet there were also major developments in the Balkans in southern Europe with Austria-Hungary and drastic changes in international relations. Russia had been primed for a revolution since the days even before the Great War. After the not so successful revolution of 1905, the tsar still kept power over the bureaucracy and the army; he also had the power of veto over the legislative body, the Duma. Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled the Russian Empire as an absolute monarch. However, following the loss of the war with Japan in 1905, serious disturbances took place in St. Petersburg and Nicholas was persuaded to accept a reduction in his power. In March, 1905, he announced plans to form a Russian Parliament called the State Duma. As this was only a consultative body, many Russians felt that this reform did not go far enough and over the next few years the country remained unstable (www.worldwari.com). The War merely acted as a catalyst and a means for the Soviets, under Lenin, to take control. Always considered a Great Power based on their outwardly appearance of size and numbers, Russia was actually a fragile, backwards nation ma king revolution inevitable. World War I exposed the weakness of the peasant-dependant nation of Russia. Russia had been considered a world power ever since the days of Napoleon, with huge numbers of citizens and immense amounts of land. â€Å"Inside, Russia remained the weak, depe...

Multimedia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Multimedia - Essay Example That is because the work of a medical assistant is never done and requires a tremendous amount of paperwork and book-keeping in order to ensure a smoothly run office. However, I believe that there is one aspect of patient record keeping that will benefit from a multimedia advancement. Lets face it, a new client coming in for a consultation at the doctors office is still required to fill in the patient information card manually. This means that as a Medical Assistant, I would still have to manually input the information into the database after the first consultation. In such cases, there will be a tendency for me to overlook such files for record keeping due to the sheer volume of records and paperwork that I need to keep track of. It would greatly benefit the job and ensure the quick and easy access to patient files if the first time patients are asked to fill in an electronic form instead that automatically saves to the server in the doctors office along with other patient files. D oing so will eliminate the redundancy of having to manually input the same information into the computer when opportunity permits. By having such a program in existence, there will no longer be any lost records or delayed input of information. Rather, the patient will be able to accurately input his personal information and be assured of the confidentiality of his file since no one else but his doctor will be able to see the file on an immediate

The growth of suburbs and urban sprawl in the United States is a Essay

The growth of suburbs and urban sprawl in the United States is a problem, or just part of the natural growth of cities - Essay Example The move by the American government to push investments away from the central cities in the 19th century is a justification of a problematic scenario. An introduction of high housing tax rates proved homeownership as an alternative to wealthy Americans. â€Å"At the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, housing prices in the United States rose rapidly during a period through which interest rates were low. Government tax policy made homeownership even more attractive† (Dahlman & William 393). The decision to retain a cultural practice is a factor of consideration in the suburb development and impact on the development of cities. The wealthy population developed a natural attraction to the rural environment influencing the growth of suburbs. This is a justification of a natural effect on the growth of metropolitans. The invention of the automobile industries acted as an immediate solution to the challenging city life. The wealthy opted to commute from th e suburbs to places of work as a way of evading city

Formal Analysis of theVase, Bottle, and Fruit by Henri Matisse Essay

Formal Analysis of theVase, Bottle, and Fruit by Henri Matisse - Essay Example In 1906, Henri Matisse presented yet another still life masterpiece called ‘Vase, Bottle, and Fruit’. This painting made with oils on canvas reflects post-impressionist style of Fauvism, of which Matisse was crowned the King. As an innovation, Matisse did not place the various 2-D still life objects on top of the table. The still life objects seem to be floating within the painting, and absolutely merged in the atmosphere. Although, the subject matter is reality-based, that is various objects on a table yet we see that Matisse has not produced a slavish copy of reality. Instead of painting the still life objects and background to correspond with reality, he presents distorted images to work out pictorial harmony. In fact, the patterns and shapes in this painting successfully depict his surreal interpretation of the subject matter. He employs a dark palette for the background, combined with vibrant colors for the still life objects. This contrast focuses the audience†™s attention more on the objects than the gloomy, dark background. The interior is absolutely ambiguous, capturing greater attention as a viewer tries to identify the objects and make out the background. The contrasted flat areas do not only add harmony, but also an effect of space to the painting. The clear boundaries of the table combined with the darker colors around it establish the spatial coordinates of the interior. The interior is devoid of shadows and unlike the background is entirely filled with light. The fabric presented here, depicts both, the tablecloth and background, Matisse accentuated the two-dimensional picture surface, which is highlighted even more due to the lack of shadows. He has subjugated the ordinary subject matter to his own artistic desires by constantly evolving the colors and patterns in it. Undeniably this painting is a classic illustration of the rich interplay between forms and colors Paragraph 3: Pure colors and dynamic brushstrokes give life to the painting. He ignores details, and has used vibrant and bright colors and strong lines to produce a feeling of movement. Pattern is the basic philosophy behind the painting. His use of pattern is akin to his use of colors, aimed at in-depth representation of the subject matter, regardless of the elements being still life, figure, and interior. This painting is an evidence of Matisse’s dexterity in the use of bold colors, and organic kinds that is evocatively apparent in it. Essentially, these patterns of the toile de juoy bear resemblance to flora, fauna, and vegetables and are organic. Matisse has used textiles as symbolic depictions and later termed them as ‘signs’. The blue tablecloth presented in this painting is in fact based on a textile fabric, an early nineteenth century printed French fabric made of cotton and linen. Matisse admired this fabric and termed it as his ‘toile de Jouy’. In actual, the fabric comprised of a delft blue design ma de on a white backdrop; however, in the painting, Matisse transformed the white into an aqua and grey shades to enrich the overall harmony. The blue and cyan hues add a powerful and bold edge to the overall painting, yet not an overpowering element. His imaginative makeover of the real life theme prime has enabled him to create oriental fantasies based on patterns. This painting incorporates the decorative element of eastern art and also uses a vast array of colors like the French Impressionists. In addition, Matisse has employed fauvism in this painting, as is evident from the wild brush strokes, strident colours, simplified theme, and abstract interpretation of

Comparison and constrast of the crime control model and the due Research Paper

Comparison and constrast of the crime control model and the due process model - Research Paper Example in their beliefs about criminal justice, the proponents of both sides must work together within the established criminal justice system, following laws and the legal process and procedures of the United States. The two models of criminal justice serve no legal purpose other than to give names and definitions to the most common perspectives towards criminal justice. The models serve as a way to talk about criminal justice and can serve as an aid to determine how a person might approach a criminal justice issue based on which theory they subscribe to. The two models can also compare to political viewpoints in terms of being considered either conservative or liberal. The crime control model is considered conservative in nature while the due process model is more liberal (Perron). Those believing that criminals should be treated as such and that there should be aggressive measure taken towards crime, are most often proponents of the crime control model, while those who feel people should not be beleaguered, that there are processes in place that should be followed and that law enforcement agencies are not the be all and end all of the criminal justice system are typically followers of the due process model. According to U.S. Legal Definitions, the crime control model, â€Å"refers to a theory of criminal justice which places emphasis on reducing the crime in society through increased police and prosecutorial powers†. This model is based on the notion that police, detectives and forensic workers are at the forefront of the criminal justice system and that their findings are almost always valid and reliable. Alleged offenders are considered to be guilty because those working in the criminal justice system have already conducted the research necessary to arrest the correct person (http://www.sociologyindex.com/crime_control_model.htm). The crime control theory focuses on keeping the public safe. Protecting the rights of individuals is less important than keeping

Chinas One Child Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chinas One Child Policy - Essay Example In addition, second children are subject to birth spacing of three or four years. If more children are born in the family, this will result in fines. It is reported that most families are required to "pay economic penalties and cannot receive bonuses from the birth control program (One Child Policy 2)." Privileges are given to children in one child families one of which is lower payment. China's One Child Policy is in response to the high population growth during the 1970s when an average woman gave birth to six children. The large number of children becomes acceptable as "parents traditionally relied on a large number of offspring to provide an economic security blanket (Fong 1)." Another purpose of the initiative is to help the country "leapfrog from a Third-World economy to a First-World economy by mimicking the First World fertility and educational patterns." The One Child Policy has a great impact in China. The Taipei Times report that it leaves the country with a huge shortage of women. During 1982, China's gender ratio had stayed relatively normal with 100 girls for every 108 boys.

Georg Simmel and Walter Benjamin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Georg Simmel and Walter Benjamin - Essay Example Georg Simmel lived in Berlin the most part of his life, and this fact of his biography predetermined his views on modern urban life. In his best-known essay, The Metropolis and Mental Life Simmel â€Å"analyzes individual life in the context of modern, metropolitan life, contrasting the social forces and structures of urban life with those of traditional rural and small town settings†. In this work, Georg Simmel underlined that in conditions of the modern city and urban society an individual can successfully develop his skills and abilities, as the economic and political situation of modern and post-modern community promotes individual freedom and flexibility. But in the other hand in modern urban society an individual is under pressure of numerous factors and restrictions, as â€Å"the metropolis is a site or location for social life where the larger structures, forms of contact, and forces such as the money economy threaten ‘the autonomy and individuality’ of t he individual†. So, the situation in modern urban cities leads to the new politics of vision, when an individual has to perceive everything from the point of view of modern urban experience. Simmel underlined that â€Å"the city conspires to erase difference by assaulting the individual with an overwhelming and never-ending stream of visual stimuli†. This vision is inherent to the spacing theory of scientific rationalism, modern and post-modern experience which fills the space with giant cubic forms suppressing the consciousness of people and their freedom. Simmel asserted that "the urban eye must see fast and understand at a glance while walking among the crowd" (Erickson, 2001). All these features form a certain type of people living in large cities in post-modern urban atmosphere. In Simmel's opinion, our society consists of individuals who interact with each other, and this interacting forms features and specificity of our society: "While there is no perception of s ociety until individuals begin to interact, once formed by the interaction of individuals, the society affects the individuals as an outside force" (Crow Ch., et al., 2000). So, taking into account the modern development of such communication means as telephone, telegraph and the Internet one can say that our society has high level of interactions, and, according Georg Simmel, we have high level of social development. He also underlined that post-modern urban life destroyed differences, and people try to make differences inside themselves: "Precisely because conditions conspire to destroy difference, however, the individual feels herself driven to cultivate uniqueness and have it noticed" (Byram, 2002). Walter Benjamin's position is reflected in his main works The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction and Arcades Project. Benjamin considered modern urban

Comparison and constrast of the crime control model and the due Research Paper

Comparison and constrast of the crime control model and the due process model - Research Paper Example in their beliefs about criminal justice, the proponents of both sides must work together within the established criminal justice system, following laws and the legal process and procedures of the United States. The two models of criminal justice serve no legal purpose other than to give names and definitions to the most common perspectives towards criminal justice. The models serve as a way to talk about criminal justice and can serve as an aid to determine how a person might approach a criminal justice issue based on which theory they subscribe to. The two models can also compare to political viewpoints in terms of being considered either conservative or liberal. The crime control model is considered conservative in nature while the due process model is more liberal (Perron). Those believing that criminals should be treated as such and that there should be aggressive measure taken towards crime, are most often proponents of the crime control model, while those who feel people should not be beleaguered, that there are processes in place that should be followed and that law enforcement agencies are not the be all and end all of the criminal justice system are typically followers of the due process model. According to U.S. Legal Definitions, the crime control model, â€Å"refers to a theory of criminal justice which places emphasis on reducing the crime in society through increased police and prosecutorial powers†. This model is based on the notion that police, detectives and forensic workers are at the forefront of the criminal justice system and that their findings are almost always valid and reliable. Alleged offenders are considered to be guilty because those working in the criminal justice system have already conducted the research necessary to arrest the correct person (http://www.sociologyindex.com/crime_control_model.htm). The crime control theory focuses on keeping the public safe. Protecting the rights of individuals is less important than keeping

Georg Simmel and Walter Benjamin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Georg Simmel and Walter Benjamin - Essay Example Georg Simmel lived in Berlin the most part of his life, and this fact of his biography predetermined his views on modern urban life. In his best-known essay, The Metropolis and Mental Life Simmel â€Å"analyzes individual life in the context of modern, metropolitan life, contrasting the social forces and structures of urban life with those of traditional rural and small town settings†. In this work, Georg Simmel underlined that in conditions of the modern city and urban society an individual can successfully develop his skills and abilities, as the economic and political situation of modern and post-modern community promotes individual freedom and flexibility. But in the other hand in modern urban society an individual is under pressure of numerous factors and restrictions, as â€Å"the metropolis is a site or location for social life where the larger structures, forms of contact, and forces such as the money economy threaten ‘the autonomy and individuality’ of t he individual†. So, the situation in modern urban cities leads to the new politics of vision, when an individual has to perceive everything from the point of view of modern urban experience. Simmel underlined that â€Å"the city conspires to erase difference by assaulting the individual with an overwhelming and never-ending stream of visual stimuli†. This vision is inherent to the spacing theory of scientific rationalism, modern and post-modern experience which fills the space with giant cubic forms suppressing the consciousness of people and their freedom. Simmel asserted that "the urban eye must see fast and understand at a glance while walking among the crowd" (Erickson, 2001). All these features form a certain type of people living in large cities in post-modern urban atmosphere. In Simmel's opinion, our society consists of individuals who interact with each other, and this interacting forms features and specificity of our society: "While there is no perception of s ociety until individuals begin to interact, once formed by the interaction of individuals, the society affects the individuals as an outside force" (Crow Ch., et al., 2000). So, taking into account the modern development of such communication means as telephone, telegraph and the Internet one can say that our society has high level of interactions, and, according Georg Simmel, we have high level of social development. He also underlined that post-modern urban life destroyed differences, and people try to make differences inside themselves: "Precisely because conditions conspire to destroy difference, however, the individual feels herself driven to cultivate uniqueness and have it noticed" (Byram, 2002). Walter Benjamin's position is reflected in his main works The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction and Arcades Project. Benjamin considered modern urban

The significance of Vygotsky’s theories Essay Example for Free

The significance of Vygotsky’s theories Essay There has been increasing interest in the significance of Vygotsky’s theories and methodologies in education, mainly because these were not completed and empirically tested by Vygotsky himself, and because for Vygotsky, education was â€Å"central to cognitive development† and is â€Å"the quintessential sociocultural theory. † Vygotsky’s theories have been important in creating educational change, and his formulations concerning the â€Å"surrounding situations† in education help us understand the social nature of behavior. Because of the importance of culture and social context to sociocultural theorists, they would naturally be concerned with education as it begins outside the classroom—in the â€Å"real† world. Thus, learning was studied in places where conventional thought deemed that it did not occur in. However, this does not tell much about the source of cognitive skills because of the variability of success of specific tasks, depending on the social context—the â€Å"surrounding situation. † Vygotsky believed that cognitive development per se created potentialities but that learning is required to realize them. He believed that it is important to understand the relationship between instruction and mental development to understand many aspects of teaching and learning. Vygotsky differentiated between spontaneous and non-spontaneous development—between a concept whose meaning is experienced and that whose meaning needs to be explained systematically, for example. The issue of diversity is a considerable challenge to sociocultural theorists today. Sociocultural theories can help in teaching socially and culturally diverse learners. The Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (LCHC), an institution which has made significant contributions to sociocultural theory, has helped in testing, analyzing, and expanding ideas on the social nature of human thought. Two of the LCHC’s most important products are the Fifth Dimension, a computer-based curriculum for academically challenged students, and La Clase Magica, an offspring of the Fifth Dimension focused on diversity. The idea of the social nature of human thought has existed for a long time, although it was Vygotsky who â€Å"solidified† the whole paradigm. Socio-cultural research on education is in its early stages. The increasing diversity in the world of education means that researches will need to work with many cultures in mind, and will need to collaborate across cultures. It can be expected that knowledge of the social nature of thought and its relationship to education will increase an necessary to accommodate the rapidly changing realities of modern times.

Types of Mitochondrial Diseases

Types of Mitochondrial Diseases Abstract: Mitochondrion is the primary site of energy and ATP generation so it is called â€Å"power house† of the cell. Mitochondria are composed of two different types of membranes like an outer membrane, an inner membrane and a protein-rich matrix. Protein kinases can localize to specific cytoplasmic sub compartments and mediates many important processes like cell motility and many signaling events. The mitochondrion is a point of integration for these signaling cascades due to its role in cellular metabolism, redox processes, and cell survival-death. PI3K/Akt/Protein Kinase B(PKB) ,Protein kinase C(PKC),Raf-MEK-ERK,JNK/SAPK and p38 MAPK, Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1),Glycogen synthase kinase 3ÃŽ ² (GSK-3ÃŽ ²),Protein kinase A (PKA),PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) are associated with mitochondria and modulate mitochondrial activity and the release of mitochondrial products affects mitochondrial respiratory chain, transport, fission-fusion events, calcium turnover, reactiv e oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial autophagy and apoptotic cell death. Mitochondrial diseases are due to degeneration of the mitochondria in specialized compartments present in every cell of the body. Mitochondria diseases causes damage to cells of the brain, heart, liver, skeletal muscles, kidney and the endocrine and respiratory systems. So this review focuse on various kinases associated with mitochondria, their role in progression of neurodegenerative diseases and treatment. Introduction 1 Mitochondria: Mitochondrion is present in every eukaryotic cell having size range of 0.5 to 10 ÃŽ ¼m in diameter (Munn et al., 1974). It is the primary site of energy and ATP production so it is called â€Å"power house† of the cell. Mitochondria are composed of two different types of membranes like an outer membrane, an inner membrane and a protein-rich matrix. The molecular machinery of chemiosmosis is associated with the inner membrane. Mitochondrial energy production is same in all cells but there are variations in shape, connectivity, and membrane morphology (Munn et al., 1974, Fawcett et al., 1966). There might be changes in the â€Å"energization† state of the mitochondrial membrane integral to energy production (Green et al., 1973). Structural diversity and dynamics of mitochondria were studied with the help of light and electron microscopy and their relationship with other cellular components. This technique gives idea about changes in shape and structure of mitochondria dur ing biological processes. Electron tomography shows remodeling of the inner membrane in the case of apoptosis and cytochrome c release (Scorrano et al., 2002) and mitochondrial fragmentation (Sun et al., 2007). Cell controls the mitochondrial structure, its function and response against various stimuli (Mannella et al., 2006) 1.1 Structure: A mitochondrion has double layer structure composed of phospholipids and proteins (Munn et al., 2007). These two double membranes have five compartments like the outer membrane, the intermembrane space ( between the outer and inner membranes), the inner membrane, the cristae formed by unfolding of the inner mitochondrial membrane, and the matrix (space in the inner mitochondrial membrane). 1.2 Inner Mitochondrial membrane: The inner membrane contains invaginations called cristae. The cristae are not random folds but these are small regions that open through narrow tubular channels into the peripheral region of the membrane (Fig. 2) (Mannella et al., 2001). Topographic analysis of intact, frozen-hydrated, rat liver mitochondria(Mannella et al., 2001) describes the inner diameter of the tubular â€Å"cristae junctions† is 10-15 nm (Fig. 2).This is enough to pass metabolites and many soluble proteins and the inner membrane restrict internal diffusion rates. For example, computer simulations indicate that the steady-state level of ADP inside cristae with long small junctions can drop below the Km for the adenine nucleotide translocator, leading to a local drop in ATP generation. Like that truncated (t)-Bid-induced remodeling in the inner mitochondrial membrane of isolated mouse liver mitochondria (Fig. 2) causes mobilization of a large fraction of the internal pool of cytochrome c lead to increased rates of reduction by the NADH cytochrome b5 redox system on the outer membrane of the organelle(Scorrano et al.,2002).The inner-membrane remodeling involves fivefold widening of the cristae and diffusion of cytochrome c between intracris tal and peripheral (intermembrane) compartments. These shows that the topology of the mitochondrial inner membrane can have effect on mitochondrial functions by influencing the kinetics of diffusion of metabolites and soluble proteins between the internal compartments defined by this membrane (Mannella et al., 1997). 1.3 Mitochondrial Inner-membrane Dynamics: Isolated mitochondria has two morphologic states, condensed and orthodox.Condence state is characterized by a contracted, very dense, matrix compartment and wide cristae while orthodox having an expanded, less-dense matrix and more compact cristae(Hackenbrock et al.,1966 ). Changes between these two morphological states has been detected in real time by light scattering or simply by adjusting the osmotic pressure of the external medium, causing water to flow into or out of the matrix. A reversible condensed-to-orthodox transition also occurs during respiration when ADP is in excess amount and fully phosphorylated form (Hackenbrock et al., 1966). Electron micrograph shows changes in inner mitochondrial membrane as passive unfolding and refolding of the inner membrane. 3D images of rat liver mitochondria obtain by electron tomography indicate that condensed rat liver mitochondria have large pleiomorphic cristae and multiple junctions to each other and to the peripheral region of the inner membrane, that is the region opposed to the outer membrane and the Orthodox rat liver mitochondria have cristae either tubular or flattened lamellae, both types usually having only one junction to the periphery of the inner membrane. For this to occur the inner mitochondrial membranes must undergo fusion and fission, with tubular forms merging into the larger cisternae during matrix condensation. Large lamellar compartment are formed via cristae fusion is strongly suggested by their appearance in tomograms of frozen-hydrated mitochondria (Fig. 2).so that the structural variations that mitochondria undergo in response to osmotic and metabolic changes involve not only the contraction and dilation of the matrix and intracristal space but also by remodeling of the inner mitochondrial membrane. A review of mitochondrial morphologies associated with a variety of osmotic, metabolic, and disease states suggests that inner-membrane topology represents a balance between fusion and fission, with defects (such as crista vesiculation) corresponding to an imbalance in this process (Mannella et al.,2006). 1.4 Inner mitochondrial membrane proteins: Mitochondrial proteins responsible for maintenance of normal cristae morphology and dynamics are also responsible for mediate inter mitochondrial fusion and organelle division since these processes involve fusion and fission of the inner as well as the outer membranes. For example, the dynamin-like GTPase called Mgm1p in yeast and OPA1 in mammalian cells is required for the fusion of mitochondria. Mutations in this protein cause a progressive, autosomal, dominant retinopathy, dominant optic atrophy (Alexander et al.,2000, Delettre et al.,2002) giving the physiological importance of mitochondrial dynamics. Another protein that directly influences inner-membrane topology is F1F0 ATP synthase. Mutations in subunits e or g of the F0 domain cause lateral dimerization and subsequent oligomerization of these inner membrane complexes and are associated with wrapped cristae lacking tubular junctions (Paumard et al., 2002). This also occurs with the down regulation of the protein mitofilin tha t regulate interactions of the ATP synthase (John et al., 2005). In ATP synthase dimers, close packing of the bulky extra membrane F1 domains causes the smaller, intramembrane F0 domains , which could induce local bending of the inner membrane.Mgm1/OPA1 has a chaperone-like function for subunit e of the ATP synthase. The loss of the function of Mgm1/OPA1 mutants inhibits ATP synthase dimer formation, which lead to the deficiency of normal tubular crista junctions in these mitochondria. 2 Mitochondrial kinases: Activated protein kinases can localize to specific cytoplasm sub compartments and mediates many important processes like cell motility (Glading et al., 2001), and signaling endosomes may facilitate communication between neurons(Howe CL et al.,2004). Like hormone- or growth factor-induce signaling cascades, recent advances in redox signaling pathways have very complex function. The mitochondrion is a point of integration for these redox signaling cascades due to its role in cellular metabolism, redox biochemistry, and survival-death decisions. Recent studies have demonstrated that certain components of protein kinase signaling cascades are specifically targeted to mitochondria, where they modulate mitochondrial activity and the release of mitochondrial products that ultimately affect the entire cell. 3 List of Mitochondrial kinases: PI3K/Akt/Protein Kinase B(PKB) Protein kinase C(PKC) Raf-MEK-ERK JNK/SAPK and p38 MAPK Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) Glycogen synthase kinase 3ÃŽ ² (GSK-3ÃŽ ²) Protein kinase A (PKA) PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) (1) PI3K/Akt/Protein Kinase B(PKB) The protein kinase B (serine/threonine kinase Akt) has a major role in cell proliferation and survival in many cells of the body. Akt is activated by phosphoinositide-dependent kinases to the plasma membrane by products of the type I phosphoinositide 3- kinase (Vanhaesebroeck et al., 2000). Antiapoptotic effects of nitric oxide may be partially mediated by cGMPdependent activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and Akt (Ha KS et al., 2003). Inspite of direct effects of Akt in phospho-inactivating the proapoptotic protein BAD (Datta et al., 1997), Akt also activate Raf-1 in the mitochondria (Majewski et al., 1999) and cause expression of proteins involved in the mitochondrial permeability transition pore(Nebigil et al.,2003). Akt can also having role in cell survival through regulation of forkhead transcription factors (Linseman et al., 2005). In Neuroblastoma and human embryonic kidney cells, insulin-like growth factor 1 Cause rapid translocation of phospho-Akt into mitochondrial subcellular fractions (Bijur et al., 2003). This effect may be cell type specific, as Akt was not observed in mitochondria of mesangial cells stimulated by insulin-like growth factor 1(Kang et al.,2003). Activated mitochondrial Akt can also phosphorylate ÃŽ ² subunit of ATP synthase and of glycogen synthase kinase 3ÃŽ ² (GSK3ÃŽ ²) (Bijur et al., 2003). GSK3ÃŽ ² has been localized by immunoelectron microscopy to the mitochondria, where it functions to phosphorylate and inhibit mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase activity (Hoshi M et al., 1996) and to promote apoptosis (Hetman et al., 2000). Akt can localize within the mitochondria rather than on its surface most commonly in the mitochondrial membrane fractions and to a lesser degree in the matrix (Bijur et al., 2003). It has pro survival role in mitochondrial membrane permeation. The antioxidant selenite has neuroprotective effects and increases AKT activation by PI3K (Wang et al., 2007). Inhibition of PI3K enhance RGCs survival upon axotomy, in a fashion that depended on the presence of local macrophages PI3K inhibition suppressed the neuroprotective effects of sodium Orthovanadate (Wu et al., 2006). (2) Protein kinase C (PKC) The protein kinase C (PKC) family consists of multiple isozymes with distinct distribution patterns in different tissues of the body (Dempsey et al., 2000). Extracellular ligand binds to a receptor tyrosine kinase or G protein-coupled receptor activates phospholipase C and produces inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). Calcium released by IP3 causes PKC to bind to membranes, where DAG then activates PKC. Activated PKC phosphorylates many cellular targets, including c-Fos and NF-ÃŽ ºB. The isozymes of PKC differ not only in their localization but also in their responsiveness to IP3, DAG, and calcium. There are three subgroups of PKC isoforms, conventional, novel, and atypical, classified on the basis of their responsiveness to these regulators (Parker et al., 2004). The ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ² isoforms of PKC were found in a subset of mitochondria in carp retinal Mà ¼ller cells (Fernandez et al., 1995) Immunoelectron microscopy studies showed that the kinase was associated with the inner membrane and cristae. Researchers described that PKC isoforms play a direct role in regulating mitochondrial function. Activated PKC isoforms that translocate to the mitochondria are proapoptotic or inhibitory to mitochondrial function. For example, renal proximal tubular cells respond to oxidative stress by activated PKCÃŽ µ to the mitochondria and inhibit the electron transport chain, ATP production, and Na+ transport by direct phosphorylation of Na+-K+-ATPase (Nowak et al., 2004). Treatment of various neoplastic cells with phorbol esters, H2O2, or anticancer agents such as cisplatin and etoposide causes accumulation of PKCÃŽ ´ to the mitochondria, with subsequent releases cytochrome c and induction of apoptosis (Majumder et al., 2000). In rat cardiac myocytes PKCÃŽ ´ was shown to move to the mitochondria in response to anesthetic exposure or ischemia/reperfusion. PKCÃŽ ´ then activate mitochondrial KATP channels, which then promote cardio protection (Uecker et al., 2003). PKCÃŽ µ also promotes cardioprotection following ischemia/reperfusion through a different mechanism, phosphorylating the voltage dependent anion channel (VDAC) component of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (Baines et al., 2003). This prevents mitochondrial swelling, outer membrane rupture, release of apoptogenic factors, and decreases in ATP production. PKCÃŽ µ and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) interact at the mitochondria to inactivate the proapoptotic protein BAD in cardiac myocytes (Baines et al., 2002). Inactivation of the proapoptotic protein Bax by PKCÃŽ µ in prostate cancer cells renders these cells resistant to androgen-deprivation therapy (McJilton et al., 2003). PKC isoforms translocate from one cell compart ment to another, these responses to PKC signaling may be mediated by association with specific anchoring scaffold proteins, RACKs (receptors for activated C kinase) and RICKs (receptors for inactive C kinase) (Mochly-Rosen et al., 1998). (3) ERK-Raf-MEK The extracellular signal regulated protein kinases (ERK1/2) has a role in regulating the processes like proliferation, differentiation, adaptation (i.e., cell motility, long term potentiating), survival, and even cell death. ERK has been found in the mitochondria of neurons and non-neuronal cells such as in mouse heart, renal epithelial cells, outer membrane and the intermembrane space of rat brain mitochondria, mouse hippocampus, B65 cells, SH-SY5Y cells; Leydig cells and human alveolar macrophages (Ruben K et al., 2009).The three-tiered ERK signaling involves sequential activation of Raf (MAPKKK), MEK1/2 (MAPKK), and ERK1/2 (MAPK). Depending on its intracellular localization and pathway of activation, Raf-1 can affect apoptosis by different mechanisms (Majewski et al.,1999, Alavi et al., 2003).ERK signaling can have opposite responses to injury even within the same cell type (Chu et al., 2004, Hetman et al., 2004). It has Pro-apoptotic role in mitochondrial membrane permeation. Pha rmacological inhibition of ERKs resulted in a reduction of cortical lesion volumes one week after trauma (Mori et al., 2002). Intravenous administration of a specific inhibitor of MEKs after ischemia results in decrease of infarct volume (Namura et al., 2001). The antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 plays an important role in targeting Raf-1 to the mitochondria, resulting in phosphorylation of proapoptotic BAD, provides evidence for signaling roles for plasma membrane-targeted versus mitochondrially targeted Raf proteins (Wang et al., 1996). Signaling cascade consisting of Raf-1, MEK1, and the adapter protein Grb10 have been localized to mitochondrial membranes (Nantel et al., 1999). The antiapoptotic effects of mitochondrially localized Raf-1 are independent of ERK activity in myeloid cells (Majewski et al., 1999), and MEK/ERK signaling does mediate antiapoptotic effects of B-Raf in fibroblasts (Erhardt et al., 1999). Phosphorylation of S338 and S339 on Raf-1 promotes mitochondrial translocation and protection of endothelial cells from the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, whereas Src cause phosphorylation of Y340 and Y341 and MEK/ERK activity are important for protection from death receptor-initiated cell death (Alavi et al., 2003). ERK can modulate mitochondrial functions and inhibition of MEK, those associated with cell death. For example, ERK signaling promotes mitochondrial ATP synthase function in glucose-deprived astrocytes (Yung et al., 2004), to maintain mitochondrial membrane potential and prevent cytochrome c release (Lee et al., 2004), and to inactivate the proapoptotic protein BAD (Jin et al., 2002). ERK has also role in promoting oxidative neuronal injuries (Chu et al., 2004) and in neurodegenerative diseases (Tobiume et al.,2002, Kulich et al.,2001) MEK/ERK promotes organophosphate induce mitochondrial vacuolation(Isobe et al., 2003), apoptotic translocation of Bax to the mitochondria(Isobe et al., 2003), and nonapoptotic programmed cell death(Sperandio et al., 2004). As pro- and antiapoptotic effects of MEK/ ERK signaling could be mediated by downstream targets or at the transcriptional level (Bonni et al., 1999), these studies do not necessarily indicate mitochondrial targeting of ERK. Mitochondrial targeting of ERK signaling was first derived from biochemical subcellular fractionation studies. In renal tubular cells, both activated ERK1/2 and PKCÃŽ ± are enriched in mitochondrial fractions during cisplatin injury, where they increase mitochondrial membrane potential, decrease oxidative phosphorylation, and increase caspase-3 activation and apoptosis (Nowak et al., 2002).ERK activity in phosphorylating both Bcl-2(Deng et al., 2000) and BAD (Kang et al., 2003) are associated with increased levels of activated ERK colocalizing or co-immunoprecipitating with the Bcl-2 family members in mitochondria. Immuno-electron microscopy studies shows presence of phosphorylated ERK1/2 within the mitochondrion (Zhu et al., 2003, Alonso et al., 2004). Phospho-ERK was found at high labeling densities within a subset of mitochondria in degenerating neurons from patients of Parkinsons disease and Lewy body dementia (Chu et al., 2003) and distinct granular cytoplasmic pattern of staining are not observed in control patients(Zhu et al., 2002). (4) JNK/SAPK and p38 MAPK The p38 MAPKs and the JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) / SAPK (stress-activated protein kinase) are of MAPK family membranes and involved in prodeath signaling (Matsuzawa et al., 2001). The p38 and JNK are activated by a MAP kinase (MKK), which is activated by a MAPKKK in response to a stimulus like oxidative stress, irradiation, or proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor ÃŽ ±. Role of p38 MAPK signaling in cell death includes translocation of proapoptotic Bax from cytosolic to mitochondrial compartments (Park et al., 2003 Shou et al., 2003), caspase-independent potassium efflux (Bossy-Wetzel et al., 2004), and transcriptional regulation of TR3, a steroid receptor-like protein that translocates from the nucleus to the mitochondria to initiate the intrinsic apoptotic pathway (Bossy-Wetzel et al., 2004). Irradiation causes translocation of both p38 and JNK1 to mitochondrial subcellular fractions (Epperly et al., 2002). The effects of JNK on the mitochondria involve stimulation of apoptosis. Treatment of isolated rat brain mitochondria with active JNK causes the inhibition of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL and release of cytochrome c (Schroeder et al., 2003). The mitochondrial JNK is activated by oxidative stress in cardiac myocytes, and cause the release of cytochrome c lead to apoptosis (Aoki et al., 2002). Treatment with phorbol esters cause localization of JNK to the mitochondria in human U-937 leukemia cells, where it binds to and inhibits Bcl-xL, promoting apoptosis (Kharbanda et al., 2000, Ito et al., 2001). Mitochondrial JNK can also cause the release of Smac, the activator of caspase that promotes caspase-9 activity (Chauhan et al., 2003). JNK also phosphorylates and oligomerize proapoptotic BAD (Bhakar et al., 2003). JNK signaling can yield cell survival under some conditions. JNK can inactivate the pro-apoptotic protein BAD (Yu C et al., 2004). Activated JNK phosphorylates Bcl-2 at Ser70 in the mitochondrial membranes of interleukin-3-dependent hematopoietic cells. This occurs under conditions of stress or by exposure to interleukin-3, resulting in enhanced antiapoptotic activity of Bcl-2(Deng et al., 2001). It has Pro-apoptotic role in mitochondrial membrane permeation. JNK3 (but not JNK1 nor JNK2) absence conferred significant neuroprotection to axotomized neurons. The absence of JNK3 (but not of JNK1 nor of JNK2) resulted in a substantial resistance against kainate-induced seizures, which correlated with improved survival (Brecht et al., 2005). Pharmacological JNK inhibitors diminished several manifestations of apoptosis and reduced infarct volume (Gao et al., 2005). Intravitreal administration of a p38MAPK inhibi tor induced apoptosis (Kikuchi et al., 2000). Oral administration of a p38MAPK inhibitor during pre- and post-ischemia provided dose-dependent neuroprotective effects (Legos et al., 2001). Pharmacological inhibition of p38MAPK protects neurons from NO-mediated degeneration (Xu et al., 2006). (5) Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) All living systems are exposed to numerous physicochemical stressors, and appropriate responses to these stresses at the cellular level are essential for the maintenance of homeostasis. The mitogen-activated protein Kinase (MAPK) cascades are having major signaling pathways in regulation of these cellular stress responses (Kazuki et al., 2009). The MAPK pathway consists of a cascade of three protein kinases. These protein kinases are sequentially activated, such as the MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK) phosphorylates and activates the MAPK kinase (MAPKK), which then phosphorylates and activates the MAPK. MAPKs have a wide variety of cellular functions, including proliferation, differentiation, migration and apoptosis. ASK1 identified as a member of the MAPKKK family and activate the MAPKK 4 (MKK4) JNK and MKK3/6-p38 pathways but not the MAP/ERK kinase (MEK)-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway (Ichijo et al., 1997). Tumor necrosis factor-ÃŽ ± receptor-associated factors (TRAFs) having important role in the regulation of ASK1 activity. In TRAF family proteins, TRAF1, TRAF2, TRAF3, TRAF5 and TRAF6 are associate with ASK1, but only TRAF2, TRAF5 and TRAF6 increase ASK1 kinase activity (Nishitoh et al., 1998). TNF-ÃŽ ± treatment induces JNK activation in a TRAF2- dependent manner (Yeh et al., 1997, Tobiume et al., 2001). Phosphorylation of Thr845 in mouse ASK1 have role in activation of ASK1 (Tobiume et al., 2002). Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress activates ASK1 and involved in variety of neurodegenerative diseases (Lindholm et al., 2006). It has Pro-apoptotic role in mitochondrial membrane permeation. Decreased activation of ASK1/JNK by the antioxidant selenite correlated with neuroprotective effects (Wang et al., 2007). (6) Glycogen synthase kinase 3ÃŽ ² (GSK-3ÃŽ ²) Glycogen synthase kinase-3ÃŽ ² (GSK-3ÃŽ ²) is a constitutively active 47-kDa Ser/Thr protein kinase. It has about 40 substrates and having functions like cell proliferation, growth and death. GSK-3ß has a significant role in the regulation of apoptosis. Apoptotic injury is increased by the over-expression of GSK-3ß lead to cellular injury. During oxidative stress, GSK-3ß can lead to the activation of caspase 3 and cytochrome c release ultimately lead to apoptosis. Mechanism of GSK-3ÃŽ ² is phosphorylation at Ser and Tyr residues, complex formation with scaffold proteins, priming of substrates and intracellular translocation. GSK-3ÃŽ ² has been involved in serious diseases such as Alzheimers disease, bipolar mood disorder, cancer and ischemia/reperfusion injury (Tetsuji et al., 2009). It has Pro-apoptotic role in mitochondrial membrane permeation. Clinical dose of lithium inhibits GSK-3ÃŽ ² resulted in significant axon sprouting and functional recovery (Dill et al., 2008). (7) Protein kinase A (PKA) The protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway involves responses to hormonal stimulation which are often cell type specific.The PKA pathway involves the binding of an extracellular molecule to a G protein-coupled receptor, which catalyzes the formation of intracellular cyclic AMP through the activation of adenylate cyclase.Cyclic AMP then binds to the two regulatory subunits of PKA, thereby releasing the two catalytic subunits to phosphorylate serine and threonine residues on target proteins. These subunits enter the nucleus and phosphorylate transcription factors such as CREB and NF-ÃŽ ºB. PKA signaling in specific subcellular compartments has been recognized with the discovery of specific anchoring scaffold proteins. PKA activity has been identified within the mitochondria in a wide variety of species, including human (Kleitke et al., 1976). Mitochondrial targeted PKA activities have positive effects on the mitochondria. PKA localized to the inner membrane and matrix of mitochondria phosphorylates and promotes the activity of complex I (NADH dehydrogenase) (Technikova-Dobrova et al., 2001). AKAP (A-kinase anchoring proteins)-mediate the activation of PKA to the cytoplasmic surface of mitochondria results in phospho-inhibition of the proapoptotic protein BAD, enhancing cell survival (Harada et al., 1999, Affaitati et al., 2003). A peripheral benzodiazepine receptor-associated protein functions as an AKAP that promotes mitochondrial steroid genesis (Liu et al., 2003). AKAP-121 can also function as targeting of Mn-superoxide dismutase mRNA to the mitochondria for localized translation of this important antioxidant (Ginsberg et al., 2003).The small G-protein Rab32, which regulates mitochondrial fission, appears to function as a mitochondrially targeted AKAP(Alto et al., 2002). Thus, mitochondrial targeting of PKA appears to be involved in regulating most major mitochondrial functions, promoting respiration, antagonizing cell death, and regulating mitochondrial protein expression and biogenesis. (8) PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) PINK1 is a serine/threonine kinase having similarity to calcium/calmodulin regulated kinases. The primary sequence for PINK1 includes a canonical N-terminal mitochondrial leader sequence (Ruben K et al., 2009). PINK1 has been found in the mitochondria human brain and it is cleaved by matrix proteases. Transmembrane domain of PINK1 is responsible for its insertion in to outer mitochondrial membrane. The C-terminal domain of PINK1 having role of its auto phosphorylation (Liu et al., 2008). Point mutations and truncations of PINK 1 have been mapped throughout the transmembrane, kinase and C-terminal domains lead to impaired kinase activity and promote degradation, or induce misfolding of PINK1. The TNF receptor associated protein 1 (TRAP1, or Hsp75) are substrate for PINK1, and the serine protease Omi/Htra2 and heat shock proteins, Hsp90/Cdc37 are PINK1 binding proteins. So degradation of PINK1 catalytic activity leads to disease like parkinsonian neurodegeneration (DeFeo et al., 1981). 4 Human Diseases associated with Mitochondrial Kinases Mitochondria are important because of the Respiratory chain which is the major sites of energy production in all cells (Taylor et al., 2005). Mitochondria perform many functions in different tissues and cells so there are so many different mitochondrial diseases associated with different tissues of the body. Each disease produces abnormalities that are difficult to diagnose. There are complex relationship between the genes and cells that are responsible for maintaining our metabolic processes running smoothly; it is a basis of mitochondrial diseases. Mitochondrial diseases is due to degeneration of the mitochondria in specialized compartments present in every cell of the body except RBC (red blood cells).When mitochondria fail to generate energy, less energy is generated in the cell so cell injury and even cell death can occur. If this is repeated throughout the whole body, whole systems begin to fail, and the life of the person is severely compromised. The disease affects more in ch ildren as compared to adult but onset is becoming more and more common. Mitochondria diseases causes damage to cells of the brain, heart, liver, skeletal muscles, kidney and the endocrine and respiratory systems. Kinases that are associated with mitochondria during neuronal injury include mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) such as extracellular signal regulated protein kinases (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), protein kinase B/Akt, and PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1). Their sites of action within mitochondria and specific kinase targets are still unclear but these signaling pathways regulate mitochondrial respiration, transport, fission-fusion, calcium buffering, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial autophagy and apoptotic cell death( Kachergus et al., 2005). 5 List of mitochondrial kinases associated human diseases: A) Neurodegenerative diseases: Parkinsons disease Alzheimers disease B) Cancer 1 Parkinsons disease (PD) Parkinsons disease is a debilitating, movement disorder that affects around 1 million people in North America. Symptoms: Motor symptoms can be due to degeneration of endogenously pigmented midbrain neurons of the nigrostriatal projection. Olfactory, autonomic and cognitive dysfunction. Most of the cases have no known cause; oxidative stress, disordered protein handling/degradation, and mitochondrial dysfunction are mechanistically observed factors in sporadic PD due to toxin/pesticide exposures, and in models of familial PD (Ruben et al., 2009). Factors like Disturbances in mitochondrial function, transport, dynamics and turnover have central role in neurotoxin, environmental and genetic approaches to Parkinsons disease (Ruben et al., 2009). In addition to changes in mitochondrial fission/fusion machinery and trafficking, autophagic degradation process has a critical role in regulating mitochondrial quality and content (Kiselyov et al., 2007). Macroautophagy has a role in membranous engulfment of cytoplasmic cargo bodies for lysosomal degradation, and this the major degradative pathway for organelles and insoluble proteins. There is deregulation of macroautophagy and of chaperone-mediated autophagy observed in toxin and genetic models of PD (Ruben et al., 2009). Gene multiplication and ÃŽ ±-synuclein mutations are autosomal dominant of PD in model of parkinsonian neurodegeneration (Polymeropoulos et al., 1997). Aggregation of ÃŽ ±-Synuclein, Lewy bodie formation and mutation in leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are found in the sporadic and dominant forms of PD (Kachergus et al., 2005). Parkin, ATP13A2, DJ1 and PTEN induced kinase 1(PINK 1) are involved in autosomal recessive Parkinsonism disease. PINK1 and Parkin regulates mitochondrial morphology and turnover (Ruben et al., 2009). In human PD brain and diffuse Lewy body diseases, Phospho-ERK (p-ERK) in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of midbr